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SPM Physics

2.2.2 Finding Velocity from Ticker Tape

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Finding Velocity

Velocity of a motion can be determined by using ticker tape through the following equation:

Caution!:
t is time taken from the first dot to the last dot of the distance measured.

Example:

Diagram above shows a strip of ticker tape that was pulled through a ticker tape timer that vibrated at 50 times a second. What is the
a. time taken from the first dot to the last dot?
b. average velocity of the object that is represented by the ticker tape?
Answer:
a. There are 15 ticks from the first dot to the last dot, hence

Time taken = 15 × 0.02s = 0.3s

b. Distance travelled = 15cm


 

2.2.1 Ticker Tape

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Ticker Tape Timer


  1. A ticker tape timer consists of an electrical vibrator which vibrates 50 times per second. 
  2. This enables it to make 50 dots per second on a ticker-tape being pulled through it. 
  3. The time interval between two adjacent dots on the ticker-tape is called one tick. 
  4. One tick is equal to 1/50 s or 0.02 s.

Example:
Find the number of ticks and the time interval between the first dot and the last dot on each of the ticker tapes below. The frequency of the ticker timer is equal to 50Hz.
a.


b.


c.


Answer:
a. Number of ticks = 15, time interval = 15 x 0.02s = 0.3s

b. Number of ticks = 5, time interval = 5 x 0.02s = 0.1s

c. Number of ticks = 8, time interval = 8 x 0.02s = 0.16s

The distance between dots on a ticker tape

  1. The distance between two adjacent dots on a ticker-tape represents the displacement of the object in a tick (0.02 s).
  2. If the object moves quickly, the dots are far apart. If the object moves slowly, the dots are close to each other. 
  3. Figure below shows the ticker-tapes produced by a fast and a slow-moving object.

Ticker-tape charts

  1. We can construct a ticker-tape charts by cutting the ticker-tape into length with an equal number of dots on each length and sticking the length side by side on a graph paper, in the same order that they were on the whole tape.
  2. The diagram below shows an example of ticker-tape chart. There are 10 ticks on each length. This means that each length represents a time interval of 0.2s.
  3. Ticker-tape charts are very useful in analyzing the motion of an object.

Analysing Ticker Tape

Uniform Velocity



  • The distance of the dots is equally distributed.
  • All lengths of tape in the chart are of equal length.
  • The object is moving at a uniform velocity.

Uniform Acceleration



  • The distance between the dots increases uniformly.
  • The length of the strips of tape in the chart increase uniformly.
  • The velocity of the object is increasing uniformly, i.e. the object is moving at a constant acceleration.

Uniform Deceleration



  • The distance between the dots decreases uniformly.
  • The length of the strips of tape in the chart decreases uniformly.
  • The velocity of the object is decreasing uniformly, i.e. the object is decelerating uniformly.

 

2.1.4 Equation of Motion

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Equation of Uniform Acceleration

Most of the motion problems can be solved by the following equations. Therefore, make sure that you memorise all of them.


How we know when to use the equation?


There are 3 types of motion:

  • motion with uniform velocity
  • motion with uniform acceleration
  • motion with changing acceleration
The 4 equations are used when the motion is uniform acceleration.

Motion with changing acceleration is not in SPM Physics syllabus. It will be discussed in Form 5 add maths.

Example 1:
An object accelerates from stationary with the acceleration of 4 ms-2. What is the velocity of the object after 7s?

Answer:
It's advisable to list down all the information that we have.

Initial velocity, u = 0 (Because the motion start from stationary)
Acceleration, a = 4 ms-2
Time taken, t = 7s
Final velocity, v = ?

The displacement, s, is not involved, hence we select the equation (v = u + at) to solve the problem.



Example 2
A car is moving with velocity 5ms-1 reaches a velocity of 25ms-1 in 5s. What is the acceleration of the car?

Answer:
It's advisable to list down all the information that we have.

Initial velocity, u = 5ms-1
Final velocity, v = 25ms-1
Time taken, t = 5s
Acceleration, a = ?

The displacement, s, is not involved, hence we select the equation (v = u + at) to solve the problem.


Example 3
A cyclist riding at a speed of 40 ms-1 braked with uniform acceleration and stopped in 40m. How long did he take to stop?

Answer:
It's advisable to list down all the information that we have.

Initial velocity, u = 40 ms-1
Final velocity, v = 0 (Because the cyclist stop)
Displacement, s = 40m
Time taken, t = ?

The acceleration, a, is not involved, hence we select the equation to solve the problem.


Example 4
A car is accelerated at 4 ms-2 from an initial velocity of 5 ms-1 for 10 seconds. What is the distance traveled by the car?

Answer:
It's advisable to list down all the information that we have.

Acceleration, a = 4 ms-2
Initial velocity, u = 5
Time taken, t = 10s
Displacement, s = ?

The final velocity, v, is not involved, hence we select the equation to solve the problem.


Example 5
A car accelerates from 4 ms-1 reaches a velocity of 28 ms-1 after traveling for 64m. What is the deceleration of the car?

Answer:
It's advisable to list down all the information that we have.

Initial velocity, u = 4 ms-1
Final velocity, v = 28 ms-1
Displacement, s = 64m
Acceleration, a = ?

The time taken, t, is not involved, hence we select the equation v² = u² + 2as to solve the problem.

 

2.1.3 Acceleration

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  1. Acceleration is defined as the rate of velocity change. It is a measure of how fast the velocity change.
  2. Acceleration is a vector quantity.
  3. The unit of acceleration is ms-2.
  4. An object moving with a velocity that is decreasing is said to be experiencing deceleration.

Equation


Example:
A car travels from a stationary position and reach a velocity of 36 ms-1 in 8 seconds. What is the acceleration of the car?
Answer:

Initial velocity, u = 0
Final velocity, v = 36 ms-1
Time taken, t = 8s
Acceleration, a = ?
 

Positive and Negative Sign of Acceleration

  1. Acceleration is a vector quantity, its sign (positive or negative) is determined by
    1. its direction
    2. rate of change of the speed
  2. If the speed of an object is increasing, the rate of change of the speed is positive, and if the speed of an object is decreasing, the rate of change of the speed is negative.
  3. Table below shows the positive/negative sign of acceleration related to the direction and rate of change of speed.
    1. When both the direction and change of speed are positive, the acceleration is positive.
    2. When the direction is positive and the change of speed is negative (speed decrease), then the acceleration is negative. This is equivalent to deceleration.
    3. When the direction is negative and the change of speed is positive (speed increase), then the acceleration is also negative. Since the speed increase, hence this is not deceleration.
    4. When both the direction and change of speed are negative, the acceleration is positive.

Additional Notes

  1. An object that experiences changes in velocity is said to have acceleration.
  2. Changes of velocity can be
    1. change of speed
    2. change of direction
  3. An object traveling with a constant acceleration, a, if the velocity changes at a constant rate.

 

2.1.2 Speed and Velocity

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Speed

  1. Speed is defined as the rate of change in distance. It is a measure of how fast the distance change in a movement.
  2. Speed is a scalar quantity.
  3. The SI unit of speed is m/s (metre per second)

Equation of Speed


Velocity

  1. Velocity is define as the rate of displacement change. It is the measure of how fast the displacement change of a moving object.
  2. Velocity is a vector quantity.
  3. The unit of velocity is m/s (metre per second)

Equation of velocity



Positive or Negative Sign of Velocity

  1. In velocity, the positive/negative sign indicates direction.
  2. You can take any direction as positive and the opposite as negative.
  3. For a linear motion, normally we take the motion to the right as positive and hence the motion to the left as negative.

Comparing Speed and Velocity

 

 

2.1.1 Distance and Displacement

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  1. Kinematics is the research regarding the types of movement of an object without referring to the forces that cause the movement of the object.
  2. Movement along a straight line is called linear motion.
  3. Under linear motion, we study the
    1. distance and displacement
    2. speed and velocity
    3. acceleration
    4. and the relationship between them.

Distance

Definition: 
The distance traveled by an object is the total length that is traveled by that object.

SI unit: meter (m) Quantity: Scalar

Displacement

Definition: 
Displacement of an object from a point of reference, O is the shortest distance of the object from point O in a specific direction.

SI unit: meter (m) Quantity: Vector

Example:


The distance of point B from the origin O is 100m. The distance of point A from the origin O is also 100m.
The displacement of point B from the origin O is +100m. The distance of point A from the origin O is -100m. The + and – sign show the direction of the displacement.

Example:


Adli go to work by motorcycle everyday as shown in the diagram above. The distance that Adli travels from his house to the factory is 200m. The displacement of Adli from his house after arriving at the factory is 120m.

 

1.6.1 Scientific Investigation

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  1. The scientific method is a systematic method in doing their work.
  2. A report of the investigation must include:
    1. Objective of the experiment,
    2. Inference,
    3. Hypothesis,
    4. Three types of variables: manipulated variable, responding variable and fixed variable,
    5. Defined operational variables,
    6. List of apparatus,
    7. Procedure,
    8. Tabulation of data,
    9. Analysis of data,
    10. Conclusion

Inference:

Inference is a statement to state the relationship between two visible quantities observed in a diagram or picture.

Hypothesis:

Hypothesis is a statement to state the relationship between two measurable variables that can be investigated in a lab.

Variables.

A variable is a quantity that can vary in value. There are 3 types of variable:

  1. Manipulated Variables: Manipulated variables are factors which changed for the experiment.
  2. Responding Variables: Responding variables are factors which depend on the manipulated variables.
  3. Constant Variables: Constant variables are factors which are kept the same throughout the experiment.

Tabulating Data

A proper way of tabulating data should include the following:

  1. The name or the symbols of the variables must be labelled with respective units.
  2. All measurements must be consistent with the sensitivity of the instruments used.
  3. All the values must be consistent to the same number of decimal places.

Graph

Graphs are used to make a relationship between variables.
Gradient value and extrapolation of a graph are used to analyse a graph.
A well-plotted must contain the following features:

  1. A title to show the two variables under investigation,
  2. two axes labelled with the correct variables and their respective units,
  3. the graph drawn is greater than 50 % of the graph paper,
  4. appropriate scales (1:1 x 10x, 1:2 x 10x and 1:5 x 10x)
  5. all the points are correctly plotted,
  6. a best fit line is drawn

 

1.5.4 Ammeter and Voltmeter

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  1. Ammeters are measuring instrument used to measure electric current.
  2. Voltmeters are measuring instrument used to measure potential difference (voltage).
  3. In SPM syllabus, you need to know
    1. how to take reading from ammeter and voltmeter
    2. how to identify the sensitivity of an ammeter and voltmeter.
    3. the connection of ammeter and voltmeter in a circuit.
  4. An ammeter is always connected in series with the load (resistor) in a circuit.
  5. A voltmeter is always connected parallel to the load (resistor) in a circuit.

 

 

1.5.3 Micrometer Screw Gauge

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Label of the Parts

Range and Accuracy

  1. The range of a micrometer is 0-25mm.
  2. The accuracy of a micrometer is up to 0.01mm.

How to Use a Micrometer?

  1. Turn the thimble until the object is gripped gently between the anvil and spindle. 
  2. Turn the ratchet knob until a "click" sound is heard. This is to prevent exerting too much pressure on the object measured. 
  3. Take the reading.

How to Read the Reading?

Reading = Reading of main scale + Reading of thimble scale.

Reading of main scale = 0 - 25 mm
Reading of thimble scale = 0 - 0.49mm

Example


(This image is licensed under GDFL. The source file can be obtained from wikipedia.org.)

Reading of main scale = 5.5mm
Reading of thimble scale = 0.28mm

Actual Reading = 5.5mm + 0.28mm = 5.78mm

Precaution Steps

  1. The spindle and anvil are cleaned with a tissue or cloth, so that any dirt present will not be measured. 
  2. The thimble must be tightened until the first click is heard. 
  3. The zero error is recorded.

 

1.5.2 Vernier Caliper

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  1. Vernier caliper is a measuring tool used to measure length.
  2. It is more accurate than metre rule. It can measure length with an accuracy up to 0.01cm.
  3. Figure above shows the illustration of a vernier caliper. For SPM students, you need to remember the name aof the parts and the function of the 2 jaws and the stem.

Taking Reading from a Vernier Calipers:

  1. A vernier caliper has 2 scale, namely the main scale and the vernier scale.
  2. The main scale is read at the zero mark of the Vernier scale.
  3. The vernier scale is read at the point where it's scale coincide with the main scale.
  4. Reading of Vernier caliper = Reading of main scale + reading of vernier scale.
  5. The vernier scale is 9mm long, divided into 10 divisions.

Example:



Reading of main scale = 2.2cm
Reading of vernier scale = 0.07cm
Reading of the vernier caliper = 2.27cm

Zero Error of Vernier Caliper

  1. The zero error is determined by tightening the jaws of the vernier calipers.
  2. Zero error must be eliminated from the reading.
Actual Reading = Reading of Vernier Caliper - Zero Error


Example:
Images below show the reading of 3 vernier calipers when their jaws are tightly closed. Find the zero error of each caliper.
a.


Zero error = 0.02 cm

b.


Zero error = -0.06cm

c.


Zero error = 0 cm (No zero error)