4.1a Evidence that Matter is Made up of Particles

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In SPM, you need to know
  1. diffusion is one of the proof of the particle theory of matter. 
  2. the definition of diffusion. 
  3. diffusion in solid, liquid and gas 
  4. factors that affect the rate of diffusion and the related experiments.

What is Diffusion?

1. Diffusion is a process of spreading of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. 
2. It occurs when the particles of the substance move through the space between the particles of another substance. 
3. Figure below shows how the bromine particles diffuse into the air. 



4. Diffusion occurs in solid, liquid and gas. 
5. The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid. 
6. Diffusion is the proof of the particle theory of matter.

MUST KNOW!
  • The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.
  • Diffusion is the proof of the particle theory of matter.




Diffusion in Solid

Diffusion in Solid
Observation
The blue colour of copper(II) sulphate fills up the entire test tube after a few days
  • Copper(II) sulphate crystals are made of copper(II) ions and sulphate ions which are tiny and discrete.
  • The particles in the copper(II) sulphate crystal will separate to become ions and diffuse randomly upwards until the whole agar turns blue.


Diffusion in Liquid

(Diffusion in Liquid)
Observation
The purple colour of potassium manganate(VII) fills up the entire test tube after a few hours
  • Diffusion has taken place in the liquid.
  • The rate of diffusion of the particles in water is faster than the diffusion rate of particles in solid.
  • The occurrence of diffusion proves that potassium permanganate(VII) consist of tiny and discrete particles.


Diffusion in Gas

(Diffusion in Gas)
Observation
The brown colour bromine vapour spreads evenly throughout the gas jar in a few minutes
  • Bromine vapour is made of tiny and discrete molecules that move randomly to fill up space.
  • Bromine vapour moves randomly and diffuses in all directions in air from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration.

Conclusion
 The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.

Video 1 - Diffusion
 

Video 2 - Diffusion in Solid
 

Video 3 - Diffusion in Liquid and Gas
 

Diffusion of Gases | The Fuse School



Brownian Motion
  1. Brownian motion is the physical phenomenon that tiny particles immersed in a fluid move about randomly.
  2. A fluid can be a liquid or a gas.
  3. Brownian movement, an example of diffusion, supports the kinetic theory of matter.
  4. Examples of Brownian movement are
    1. movement of smoke particles in air
    2. movement of pollen grains in water


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Brownian Motion




4.1 Changes in the State of Matter

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Changes in the State of Matter

1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

2. Matter exists in 3 states, namely the solid state, liquid state and gaseous state.

3. We can catagorise matter into 2 categories: element and compound.

4. Element is the substance that consists of 1 type of atom. Compound is the substance that consists of more than 1 type of atom.

5. Matter is made up of a large number of tiny and discrete particles. We can catagorise the particles into 3 categories: The atoms, the molecules and the ions.

6. Atom is the smallest, indivisible particle of an element. Atoms of the same element are exactly alike and are different from the atoms of all other elements. 

7. When 2 or more atoms join together chemically, they form molecule. For example, 2 hydrogen atoms join together form a hydrogen molecule. 1 oxygen atom combine with 2 hydrogen atoms form a water molecule.

8. Ions are any particles that carry charge. For example, if a hydrogen atom is charged and carries a +1 charge, it become a hydrogen ion. Also, if an oxygen ion is charged with a charge of -2, it become an oxygen ion.

9. Ions that carry positive charge are called cations. Ions that carry negative charge are called anions. 



Kinetic Theory of Matter

The kinetic theory of matter explains the state of matter in solid, liquid and gaseous states based on the following assumptions:

1. Matter is made up of very small particles, each of which has a mass.

2. These molecules are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container.

3. There are forces of attraction between particles of matter. These attraction forces will increase as the distance between the particles becomes closer.

4. The average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the temperature of the system. The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the particles.

4.7.2 Enzymes (Structured Question 1 & 2)

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Question 1:
Diagram I shows the organelles involved during the synthesis and secretion of an enzyme in an animal cell.

(a) Name the organelles labelled J and L.

(b)(i) State the function of organelle M.
(b)(ii) Explain the role of organelle K in the synthesis of the enzyme.


(c)
Enzymes are widely used in our daily life and industries.
Explain how enzymes act in:
(i) helping to cook meat.
(ii) extracting agar from seaweeds.


(d) Diagram II shows the structure of an enzyme and three substrates W, X and Y.


Based on Diagram II, complete the schematic diagram below to show the mechanism of enzyme action on a suitable substrate.


Answer:
(a)
J: Golgi apparatus
L: Secretory vesicles

(b)(i)
Produces energy

(b)(ii)
K stores genetic information in the DNA and this information is transferred to the RNA which then carries it out to the cytoplasm.


(c)(i)
Protease enzyme softens the meat.

(c)(ii)
Cellulase breaks down cell walls of seaweed and frees agar contained in it.

(d)



4.7.1 Proteins (Structured Question 1 & 2)

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Question 1:
Diagram I shows two levels of organization in protein structure.





(a) In Diagram I, name the level of organization in the protein structures of P and Q.


(b) Describe the structure of protein P.

(c) Diagram II shows how protein P is broken down to form products.


(d) Explain how the products in Diagram II are formed.


(e) State why animal proteins are first class protein.

Silk is an example of protein. A silk garment crumples when it is washed using hot water at a temperature of 65OC.
(i) Explain the above statement.

(ii) Based on the above statement, suggest two ways to maintain the quality of silk garments.



Answer:
(a)
P: Primary structure
Q: Secondary structure

(b)
The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

(c)
Protein P is broken down by an enzyme (polypeptidase) in hydrolysis to form dipeptides.

(d)
Because it contains all the 8 essential amino acids needed by humans. 


(e)(i)
Silk is a protein fibre. High temperatures will reduce the strength of the hydrogen bonds and disrupt the structure, thus denaturation of the protein occurs.

(e)(ii)
1.Wash it in cold water
2. Do not wring
3. Do not expose to direct sunlight
4. Never use chlorine bleach on silk
(Choose any 2)

4.4 Lipids

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  1. Lipids are complex organic compounds that made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Some lipids contain the elements nitrogen and phosphorus.
  2. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in a lipid molecule is higher than the    2 : 1 ratio in carbohydrates.
  3. Lipids are insoluble in water. However, they are soluble in other lipids and organic solvents such as alcohol and acetone.
  4. The basic units of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol. A lipid molecule is made up of one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid.


(Formation of molecule of lipid)

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Types of Lipids
  1. Examples of lipids include
    1. fats and oils (triglycerides), 
    2. waxes, 
    3. phospholipids
    4. steroids.
  2. Fats and oils (triglycerides)
    1. A triglyceride is formed from glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids through condensation.
    2. Triglycerides can be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by hydrolysis.
    3. There are two types of fats.
      1. Saturated fats
        1. Fats containing saturated fatty acids
        2. are solids at room temperature.
      2. Unsaturated fats
        1. Fats containing unsaturated fatty acids
        2. usually Iiquid at room temperature
        3. it is called oil 
  3. Waxes
    1. Waxes are long chain esters.
    2. They are found in the cuticle of leaves.
    3. They are waterproof
    4. They can prevents entry of microorganisms and evaporation of water
  4. Phospholipids
    1. Phospholipids are component of plasma membrane.
    2. Example of phospholipid is lecithin. It is a type of triglyceride, which is the main constituent of the plasma membrane.
  5. Steroids
    1. Steroids include cholesterol and hormones such as testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone.
    2. Steroids have a basic structure which consists of four interconnected rings of carbon atoms. Attached to this basic structure are side chains of different lengths.
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4.3 Protein

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  1. Proteins are complex compounds that made up of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. Some proteins contain sulphur and phosphorus.
  2. It is needed by the body for 
    1. growth, 
    2. repair of damaged tissues and 
    3. synthesis of secretions (enzymes, mucus, hormones.)
  3. Proteins are polymer that made up of monomers called amino acids. Each molecule of amino acid has one amino group (-NH2) and one carboxyl group ( -COOH).
  4. Two molecules of amino acids are joined by a peptide bond to form a dipeptide through condensation.
    Amino acid + amino acid → dipeptide + water
  5. Polypeptides (protein) are formed when many amino acids are joined together by condensation.
  6. Proteins can be broken down through hydrolysis into amino acids.
  7. There are 20 types of amino acids in cells.
  8. Amino acid can be divided into essential amino acid and nonessential amino acid.
    1. Essential amino acids are amino acids that cannot be synthesised by the body. They can only be obtained from diets. An example is leucine.
    2. Non-essential amino acids are amino acids that can be synthesised by the body. They are derived from other amino acids. There are 11 non-essential amino acids.
  9. Proteins can be grouped into four levels of organisation according to their structures.
    1. Primary structure (linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.)
    2. Secondary structure (polypeptide is coiled to form an alpha-helix or folded into beta-pleated sheets)
    3. Tertiary structure (helix or beta-pleated sheets are folded in many ways into a three dimensional shape of a polypeptide.)
    4. Examples are hormones, enzymes, antibodies and plasma proteins.
    5. Quarternary structure (Two or more tertiary structure polypeptide chains combine to form a large and complex protein molecule. Example: haemoglobin.)



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3.8.3 Sex Determination and the Occurrence of Twins (Structured Questions)

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Question 1:
Diagram 1 shows the schematic diagram of sex determination in human being.


(a) In Diagram 1, complete the sex chromosomes in gametes K and L. [2 marks]

(b) What is gamete L? [1 mark]

(c) State process B. [1 mark]

(d) State the sex of offspring M. [1 mark]

(e) Based on Diagram 1, state the percentage to get a baby boy. [1 mark]

Answer:
(a) K : X, L : Y

(b) Sperm

(c) Fertilization

(d) Girl

(e) 50%
 

4.2.3 Polysaccharides

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  1. Polysaccharides are formed when more than two monosaccharides (usually more than hendreds) combine through condensation. 
  2. Some characteristics of polysacharides are: 
    1. do not dissolve in water 
    2. do not taste sweet 
    3. do not crystallise
  3. Polysaccharides can be hydrolysed by adding acid, boiling and action of enzymes. 
  4. Examples of polysaccharides 
    1. Starch
      storage of carbohydrate in plants. The iodine test is used for confirming the presence of starch
    2. Glycogen
      storage of carbohydrate in animals. Its polysaccharide chains are branched
    3. Cellulose
      structural polysaccharide in plant cells. They are the constituent of the cell walls of plant cells and chitin of animal cuticles. Gives support to plant cells.
  5. Polysaccharides can be broken down into smaller molecules through hydrolysis using dilute acid or enzymes.
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4.2.2 Disaccharides

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  1. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides combine together through a chemical process called the condensation.
  2. Disaccharides are known as complex sugar.
  3. Examples of disaccharides are,
    1. Maltose 
      1. known as malt sugar. 
      2. It is a reducing sugar
      3. It is formed from condensation of two glucose molecules.
        Glucose + glucose → maltose + water 
      4. Found in germinating cereals
      5. Produced during digestion of starch
    2. Sucrose
      1. It is found in sugar cane, beet root and  sweet fruits
      2. It is a non-reducing sugar
      3. It is  formed from glucose and fructose.
        Glucose + fructose → sucrose + water
    3. Lactose
      1. Present in all mammals
      2. Is a reducing sugar
      3. It is formed from glucose and galactose
        Glucose + galactose → lactose + water
  4. Disaccharides are decomposed to units of monosaccharide through hydrolysis (the addition of one molecule of water)

4.2.1 Monosaccharides

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  1. Monosacharides are monomers of carbohydrates. 
  2. Examples of monosacharides are:
    1. Glucose — found in plants and animals (It is the energy source for cellular respiration)
    2. Fructose — found in fruits and honey
    3. Galactose — present in milk
  3. They are reducing sugars, they can remove oxygen from other compounds..
  4. They can be detected by using Fehling's or Benedict's test. 
  5. When monosaccharides are heated with Fehling's or Benedict's solution, they will reduce the blue copper(II) sulphate in the two solutions to a brick red precipitate.